Gerald Feldman: "I Had Unrestricted Freedom"
After four years of research, the time has now come for publication of the book by historian Gerald D. Feldman describing the history of Allianz and the German insurance industry between 1933 and 1945. His editor, Ernst-Peter Wieckenberg, talks to Gerald D. Feldman.
? Your book on Allianz and the insurance industry in the Third Reich is being published during the next few days. You have completed your work amazingly quickly, if we pause to consider the vast array of sources that had to be sifted through. I’ve no doubt that your experience with working on sources like this bore fruit?
Feldman: There are two reasons. I had a research team, without which I would never have been able to gather all the information. Having said that, I have had to read through all the material myself. Thanks to my experience in writing about company history, I can look through sources relatively quickly and then evaluate them. Despite that, I had to put in a lot of energy and had several sleepless nights.
? Were there any unexpected discoveries among the archives or did you come across any individual files that played a decisive role in moving your work forward?
Feldman: The files of the company itself were extremely important, together with those of Munich Re. They gave me an insight into the internal affairs and mode of operation of the enterprise. The material in the “Special Archive” in Moscow was particularly important for my work. That’s where I got an in-depth angle on the politics of National Socialism. People often think that politics don’t exist in a dictatorship. Actually, there’s a lot of politics in a dictatorship. It’s just that it takes quite a different and indeed horrifying form.
The headquarter of Allianz in Berlin were destroyed in 1945
? Some files were lost during the war. Can we nevertheless assume that we now have a reasonable picture of the history of Allianz and that files will not come to light unexpectedly that would radically change the picture?
Feldman: That’s difficult to say. I believe that I have portrayed the main thrusts of policy pursued by Allianz and the insurance industry correctly.
But we have to be quite clear about one thing. I am responsible for these interpretations. I received the full support of Allianz to pursue my research in an unrestricted manner in order to produce an independent study. There may be big holes when it comes to individuals and certain processes. Not all questions can be clarified because many of the minutes recorded by the Board of Management were destroyed by bombing. If these files had been available, I would certainly have written the book quite differently.
But we have to be quite clear about one thing. I am responsible for these interpretations. I received the full support of Allianz to pursue my research in an unrestricted manner in order to produce an independent study. There may be big holes when it comes to individuals and certain processes. Not all questions can be clarified because many of the minutes recorded by the Board of Management were destroyed by bombing. If these files had been available, I would certainly have written the book quite differently.
? Did you carry out your work on the basis of certain hypotheses that you had to revise as a result of your findings in the files?
Feldman: There were some big surprises. Take Director Eduard Hilgard, for example, head of the Reich Economic Group ‘Insurance’ (Reichsgruppe Versicherungen). In his memoirs, he presents himself as someone who was against National Socialist policies. One example is Crystal Night, where he emphasizes the claims that flooded into insurance companies.
But if you actually read the files on Crystal night, you can see how much he adapted to the mood of the day and exploited anti-Semitic sentiment to keep the pressure from impacting on the insurance industry. In reality, the insurance companies were not liable for the claims because the pogrom was regarded as “civil unrest”. Policies excluded this from cover. However, Göring came to the conclusion that the companies had a certain degree of liability and demanded the sum of 20 million reichsmarks from them. Naturally this money – declared as payments to Jews – had to be paid to the tax authorities. Hilgard succeeded in getting this sum reduced to 1.3 million reichsmarks.
In the early stages, people like Hilgard were skeptical, but at some point their opinion changed. You clearly didn’t need to be anti-Semitic in order “go along with things” – in quite a big way. The conformity shown by people like Hilgard that went further and further as the war progressed was the big surprise for me.
But if you actually read the files on Crystal night, you can see how much he adapted to the mood of the day and exploited anti-Semitic sentiment to keep the pressure from impacting on the insurance industry. In reality, the insurance companies were not liable for the claims because the pogrom was regarded as “civil unrest”. Policies excluded this from cover. However, Göring came to the conclusion that the companies had a certain degree of liability and demanded the sum of 20 million reichsmarks from them. Naturally this money – declared as payments to Jews – had to be paid to the tax authorities. Hilgard succeeded in getting this sum reduced to 1.3 million reichsmarks.
In the early stages, people like Hilgard were skeptical, but at some point their opinion changed. You clearly didn’t need to be anti-Semitic in order “go along with things” – in quite a big way. The conformity shown by people like Hilgard that went further and further as the war progressed was the big surprise for me.
? A continual accusation leveled at insurance companies has been that they failed to pay out on life insurance policies to Jews. Your book presents that as an irrelevant statement. Did you know this in advance or is it a perspective that became clear during the course of your work?
Feldman: I didn’t know that. I have to admit that I wasn’t familiar with this aspect of insurance and I had to do some research into the matter. It’s not quite true to say that the issue is irrelevant. It’s very important to know that some of the insurance policies issued by Allianz were concluded with Jews.
It’s possible to say with certainty that most insurance policies were repurchased, because the Jews needed money. The Jewish population was subject to a high level of special taxation and had to pay discriminatory levies. That’s why they desperately needed money in order to emigrate. In order to cover these costs, they had no choice but to have the repurchase values of their life insurance policies paid out, particularly during the period 1937 to 1939.
The remaining insurance policies were in many cases confiscated in 1941 when Jews living in Germany were deprived of their citizenship and the deportations started. Assets owned by Jews who were already living abroad were also seized, including insurance policies. That’s why the compensation legislation also covers life insurance policies.
It is therefore unlikely that a significant number of unidentified insurance assets still remain to be found in the archives of German companies. Of course, it’s quite possible that there are still insurance policies at Allianz that have not yet been paid out, because they are virtually indistinguishable on the surface from the mass of other documents.
The repurchase of life insurance policies was certainly not good business for the insurance companies. You can only make real profits with insurance if the policies are held until their contractual term.
It’s possible to say with certainty that most insurance policies were repurchased, because the Jews needed money. The Jewish population was subject to a high level of special taxation and had to pay discriminatory levies. That’s why they desperately needed money in order to emigrate. In order to cover these costs, they had no choice but to have the repurchase values of their life insurance policies paid out, particularly during the period 1937 to 1939.
The remaining insurance policies were in many cases confiscated in 1941 when Jews living in Germany were deprived of their citizenship and the deportations started. Assets owned by Jews who were already living abroad were also seized, including insurance policies. That’s why the compensation legislation also covers life insurance policies.
It is therefore unlikely that a significant number of unidentified insurance assets still remain to be found in the archives of German companies. Of course, it’s quite possible that there are still insurance policies at Allianz that have not yet been paid out, because they are virtually indistinguishable on the surface from the mass of other documents.
The repurchase of life insurance policies was certainly not good business for the insurance companies. You can only make real profits with insurance if the policies are held until their contractual term.
? It seemed to me that the book had brought a lot of new information to light about the different forms of “integration” of a big company like Allianz in the National Socialist regime and its policies.
Feldman: That’s quite true. What one needs to realize is that almost everything was insured. That includes the factories in concentration camps or the production facilities in the Lodz ghetto. For example, there was also transport insurance for confiscated Jewish goods and valuables. Securities taken away from the Jews were also covered. Allianz and other companies were involved, but Allianz was the biggest insurance company.
As far as I’m concerned, it’s extremely important to show the moral side to this kind of involvement. In this context, the fact that Allianz is a founding member of the German Industry Foundation Initiative is extremely significant. It was caught up in the web of involvement. If Kurt Schmitt, for example, recognized later on that the National Socialist regime was criminal, this is no excuse for the fact that he lent his support to the regime during the early stages.
As far as I’m concerned, it’s extremely important to show the moral side to this kind of involvement. In this context, the fact that Allianz is a founding member of the German Industry Foundation Initiative is extremely significant. It was caught up in the web of involvement. If Kurt Schmitt, for example, recognized later on that the National Socialist regime was criminal, this is no excuse for the fact that he lent his support to the regime during the early stages.
? That’s the big surprise for anyone looking at the issues through the book. There was some rejection of the regime, even occasional contempt – then came cooperation and opportunism. On the other hand – and that brings me to the Jewish employees – there was some exceptionally decent behavior toward individuals. Probably because they were known and respected.
Feldman: I believe you have to differentiate very precisely. Up until 1936, perhaps up until 1938, Allianz behaved with relative propriety. The company at least attempted to be as fair as possible. Their approach changed from that point onward. This corresponded to the regime becoming increasingly radical. The transition is the real problem – abnormal business dealings suddenly become normal business. This is particularly evident with Aryanization.
? Are there any employees at Allianz who particularly gained your respect?
Feldman: Hans Heß, General Manager of Allianz from 1933, was an opponent of the Nazis and this is quite clearly documented. Given this fact, he becomes a sympathetic figure. He attempted to hold back. The extent to which he did anything against the government is very difficult to say.
Wilhelm Arendts was the only hero. He was General Manager of Bayerische Versicherungsbank and he really was in the resistance. He risked his life. He served as a senior officer with the Wehrmacht in France and had contact with the conspirators involved in the plot to assassinate Hitler on July 20, 1944. He also rescued the lives of a number of people in France.
Wilhelm Arendts was the only hero. He was General Manager of Bayerische Versicherungsbank and he really was in the resistance. He risked his life. He served as a senior officer with the Wehrmacht in France and had contact with the conspirators involved in the plot to assassinate Hitler on July 20, 1944. He also rescued the lives of a number of people in France.
? You have dedicated the book to the Jewish employees at Allianz. Do they include any particularly striking personalities? Or did the files not really reflect their characteristics clearly?
Feldman: There are certainly a number of people whose characteristics came through quite clearly. The grandson of Martin Lachmann showed us letters that describe his fight to carry on his profession, and detail his efforts to find work abroad. However, he did not succeed in getting out of Germany and he was murdered in Eastern Europe.
Maximilian Eichbaum is another individual who we know quite a lot about. He was a very talented and intelligent insurance specialist working for Magdeburger Versicherung. The company really wanted to keep him, but they failed. Later he became very embittered and didn’t want to come back.
It’s much more difficult as far as the others are concerned. We really only know about them through the compensation procedure.
It’s quite astounding to see how some individuals, for example Maximilian Eichbaum, continued to foster their friendly feelings for Heß, Schmitt and Hilgard. It’s depressing when you then find out how people like Schmitt and Hilgard present themselves as victims of the Nazi regime and suppress their involvement. And it ceases to be a surprise that it has taken half a century for this history to be written. It has only now become possible to address the moral misconduct by the people during the November pogrom and other events. I find it encouraging that the present management at Allianz is willing to promote and support this endeavor.
Maximilian Eichbaum is another individual who we know quite a lot about. He was a very talented and intelligent insurance specialist working for Magdeburger Versicherung. The company really wanted to keep him, but they failed. Later he became very embittered and didn’t want to come back.
It’s much more difficult as far as the others are concerned. We really only know about them through the compensation procedure.
It’s quite astounding to see how some individuals, for example Maximilian Eichbaum, continued to foster their friendly feelings for Heß, Schmitt and Hilgard. It’s depressing when you then find out how people like Schmitt and Hilgard present themselves as victims of the Nazi regime and suppress their involvement. And it ceases to be a surprise that it has taken half a century for this history to be written. It has only now become possible to address the moral misconduct by the people during the November pogrom and other events. I find it encouraging that the present management at Allianz is willing to promote and support this endeavor.
