Last Sunday's Allianz Lecture in the Munich Residence Theater addressed the question: Why are Jewish and Islamic cultures still not considered a part of European culture?

During the eighth century, when the Iberian peninsula was under Islamic rule, Muslim and Jewish cultures interacted in complex ways, giving Spanish culture – in terms of religion, literature, music, art, architecture, and writing systems – a rich and distinctive heritage.

Yet, Jewish and Islamic influence on the development of European culture has been ignored or even denied, beginning in the 11th century with the Christian "Reconquista" (re-conquering) of Spain.

Fast forward to today: more than 16 million Muslims are living in Europe. Yet, most European societies still see non-Christian minorities as foreigners. Often, Muslims are considered a threat to Western democratic society.

In her speech. Almut Sh. Bruckstein, a professor of philosophy and hermeneutics formerly at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, observed that even today, non-Christian sources of knowledge and reasoning are hardly recognized in Europe.

Long forgotten are the cosmopolitan centers such as Cordoba, which during the eighth century under Islamic rule, was the richest and most sophisticated city of medieval Europe, but also 12th century Baghdad or 16th century Istanbul. "The word ‘Orient’ is almost always associated with the foreign and exotic, the sensual and seductive. At times, it even connotes cruelty and primitiveness," she said.

Bruckstein also commented that this kind of prejudice is everywhere, including Israel. "In Israel, a view of the world which recognizes Islamic tradition is impossible today." She explained that a firmly-established sense of allegiance to the Israeli state is simply too strong.

Bruckstein called for an interdependent relationship between Western and Jewish/Islam cultures, based on universalism: "Creating a European Utopia requires a self-critical approach in order to embrace the Jewish and Islam traditions, which once contributed so greatly to European culture...It is our only hope, if we want to create a future for Europe, which is not based only on war."

The Istanbul and Paris-based sociology professor, Nilüfer Göle, opened her speech with a motto of the Allianz Cultural Foundation: "Culture needs open space, and a partner to create it."

Using the concept of "space", Göle spoke of the "contact zones" where different religions and lifestyles tend to collide: "Today, it is proximity, not distance, which is the cause of the problems. In the past, it didn’t matter so much, because we were not sharing our schools, hospitals or other public places. Since globalization, there are no more frontiers which protect us."

Göle addressed several issues where Europeans already feel the conflict and debate surrounding European identity: Turkish EU membership, the headscarf, the rejection of an EU constitution, and the caricature controversy.

Göle commented, "The shaping of Europe depends on the way in which Europeans and Muslims relate to each other. Europe itself is transformed, whether we like it or not, in its encounter with Islam." Her conclusion: "For me Europe is a project, to be defined in terms of its future, and not of its past. Our job is to understand the meaning of these controversies to better understand our bonds."

In his speech, British-Pakistani writer and filmmaker Tariq Ali warned against defining Europe according to established beliefs or doctrine: "Rigid application of texts is very dogmatic. Europe should be a synthesis, based on debate and discussion. This is essential, if a culture wants to move ahead. Otherwise, atrophy!"

According to the former Oxford scholar, the "Europe Project” itself is also too defined by economics. Politics, social justice and culture are hardly addressed. Ali added that he expects clashes to continue, not only between cultures, but also within a culture.

Referring to the youth riots in France, he commented, "Integration is happening on many levels, but perhaps not in the way that the establishment expects it to. Very few alternatives are being presented to the public about which way to think on the issue of democracy. It’s all moderate left or moderate right. This is alienating the younger generation, who in turn chooses other ways to express its anger and frustration."

Ali concluded, "The way forward is to accept that Europe is a diverse and mixed society, and to make an effort to encourage it by spreading information and knowledge. Don’t allow national identities to dominate."